Nuclear Britain

One of the most significant decisions facing the UK this year is what to do about the ageing fleet of nuclear power stations. The UK pioneered civilian nuclear power generation with a young Queen Elizabeth II opening the world's first public grid connected power station on 17th October 1956. Calder Hall's four 50MW reactors were finally shutdown in 2003 after generating 70TWh of electricity and more than two tonnes of weapons-grade plutonium over it's 47 years of operation.

Whilst this old power plant's electricity contribution was modest in the grand scheme of things it's recent closure is representative of the fate facing the rest of the fleet in the near future.

This photo is my local nuclear power station, Oldbury on the East bank of the Severn Estuary, 15 miles north of Bristol. Opened in 1968 it is scheduled to close during 2008 with the loss of 435MW from its two reactors.


Click image to enlarge.

Lets have a brief look at where we are now and what the future might hold.

An important thing to remember about nuclear power plants is that they share a lot in common with fossil fuel plants. They generate electricity by using the heat given off by radioactive fission to raise steam which is then used in normal steam turbines.

Each of the two reactors at Oldbury for example generate 815MW of thermal output, of which only some 218MW emerges as electricity indicating a thermal efficiency of 27%. This is an important point to be aware of when looking at primary energy consumption comparisons. When nuclear is included in a table of primary energy with coal, gas and petroleum it is this thermal output which is listed not the electrical output. This can be confusing since when primary electricity sources (like wind and hydro) are listed in the same table their electrical output is listed. This has the effect of making these primary sources of electricity appear approximately three times smaller than they effectively are.

The British nuclear fleet is now split into two categories. There are the nuclear legacy sites which are now under the control of the Nuclear Decommissioning Agency (NDA) and the eight modern sites which remain under the control of British Energy. The NDA have responsibility for 20 civil nuclear sites including decommissioned research facilities, fuel plants, fusion research, storage sites and the Magnox fleet. 15 of those sites are managed by British Nuclear Group and Westinghouse under NDA contracts. These were until recently both British Nuclear Fuels (BNFL) group companies but the sale of Westinghouse to the Toshiba Corporation has recently been agreed to the surprise of many outsiders considering the current uncertainly surrounding the nuclear industry in the UK.

Magnox is short for Magnesium non-oxidising and refers to the alloy of magnesium and aluminium used as a cladding for unenriched uranium metal fuel. The design was initially created to produce weapons-grade plutonium but later larger reactors were exclusively used for civilian electricity generation. It is said that North Korea used the Magnox design developed from the declassified blueprints of Calder Hall to generate plutonium for their nuclear weapons programme.

The decommission schedules are set in motion now with the end of the Magnox era clearly in sight, due significantly to the fact that the fuel assembly corrodes in water, limiting storage and the required fuel reprocessing plant is also at end of life. The decommissioning project is extremely complex since no consideration was given to decommissioning during the design and build in the 50's and 60's. This was a phase of nuclear R&D resulting in many one-off designs and very poor records of site inventories, how the site was used and in some cases a lack of design drawings! Such problems are not expected when the British Energy sites are decommissioned. A wealth of information is available at the above linked websites.

Build DateCapacity MWPublished LifetimeDecommission Age
Hunterston A 1964 360 1989 25
Berkeley 1962 276 1989 27
Trawsfynydd 1965 390 1991 26
Hinkley Point A 1965 470 2000 35
Bradwell 1962 242 2002 40
Calder Hall 1956 194 2003 47
Chapelcross 1959 196 2005 46
Sizewell A 1966 420 2006 40
Dungeness A 1965 450 2006 41
Oldbury 1967 434 2008 41
Wylfa 1971 980 2010 39

Magnox Power Stations

Less certain however is the future of the more modern British Energy sites comprising of seven advanced gas-cooled reactor (AGR) power stations and one pressurised water reactor (PWR). British Energy was privatised in 1996 with what was then seen as the commercially viable British nuclear interests. The private venture didn’t turn out to be particularly viable though with the government forced to invest £3bn in 2004, assume liabilities worth between £150m and £200m p.a. over the next ten years and reclassify the company as a public body. The 1996 privatisation had netted just £2.1 billion.

Whilst the current AGR sites do have decommission dates in the near future they are under review. Dungeness B was recently granted a 10 year extension from 2008 to 2018 and a similar extension is being considered at Hunterston B.

Build DateCapacity MWPublished LifetimeDecommission Age
Hinkley Point B19761220 2011 35
Hunterston B1976 1190 2011 35
Hartlepool1983 1210 2014 31
Heysham 11983 1150 2014 31
Dungeness B1983 1110 2018 35
Heysham 21988 1250 2023 35
Torness1988 1250 2023 35
Sizewell B 1995 1188 2035 40

British Energy AGR and PWR Power Stations

This graph illustrates the generating capacity lost as the power stations are decommissioned.

Click to enlarge. (Source: DTI, Nuclear power generation development and the UK industry)

In 2004 the 11.9GW of nuclear capacity generated 80TWh, consumed 6.3TWh resulting in a supply of 74TWh (21%) of the 343TWh total supplied electricity. This represents a 77% plant availability compared with 67% for coal, 72% for gas and 62% across total plant capacity. (DUKES 5.6 & 5.7)

We clearly have an energy gap today as aging nuclear and coal plant are decommissioned, North Sea gas depletes and renewables seem unlikely to fill the gap so the legitimate question is what part does the British nuclear industry play in filling this gap?

The options are:

  • Decommission everything as scheduled and build no more (a 7GW capacity reduction within 8 years rising to 10.7GW by 2023)
  • Decommission everything as scheduled and build replacement (requiring 10.7GW of new capacity by 2023 including a challenging 7GW within 8 years)
  • Apply significant extensions to the AGR infrastructure and build no more (2.3GW capacity reduction within 4 year years but most of the remaining 9.5GW available beyond 2020.
  • Apply significant extensions to the AGR infrastructure and build replacement for decommissioned Magnox (requiring 2.3GW within 4 years but not much more before 2020)
There are many considerations including cost, safety, waste management, uranium reserves, UK energy gap, geo-politics, CO2, grid architecture, local skill set, security etc... and for some reason or other the nuclear debate unfortunately tends to attract extremely polarized points of view making constructive discussion difficult.

The government is re-evaluating whether to build new nuclear plant with a decision (in principal at least) expected this year. I’d like to end with this question taken from the government’s current Energy Review consultation. It asks:

The (2003) Energy White Paper left open the option of nuclear new build. Are there particular considerations that should apply to nuclear, as the government re-examines the issues bearing on new build, including long-term liabilities and waste management? If so, what are these, and how should the government address them?
Personally, I think microgeneration (which unsurprisingly excludes nuclear) is the way forward.  If the government can put enough incentives for households to invest in wind/solar/heat pumps then people's self-interest will do the rest.  Nuclear is just perpetuating the centralised generation/grid system which although needed even in a microgeneration utopia is not the sole answer to the gap.
It's funny. It seems that so many people in modern industrialized countries don't have any idea what market economy and industry are all about. Let me explain just two concepts:

  1. Specialization
  2. Economy of scale

Specialization is the thing that allows you not two worry what is in your TV or in your microoven, how the materials for them were mined and delivered, how those nice things were invented, projected or produced. Specialization allows our society to work without everybody being an technician, engineer, scientist, doctor, farmer, politician at the same time.

Economy of scale is what makes your living standart so high. In short you can produce electricity both in a large power plant and in your back yard. The difference is that when you get it from the power plant it will cost you $0.05/kwth and when you produce it in your backyard the cost will be $0.50/kwth. But this is just the face value of it, because everything in the economy is so interconnected. Suppose the supplier that delivered the generator for your electricity also scales back. Then the generator you bought from him will cost not $10 000, but $100 000, and the electricity you produce will cost you not $0.50 but $5/kwth. And this applies to everything.

Economy of scale is all well and good, but the National Grid isn't exactly the most efficient of distribution networks, producing electricity/hot water at the point of use eliminates the inefficiencies of centralised power production.  The point of subsidies/regulations is to make microgeneration amenable to economy of scale, i.e. if you make it a prerequisite of new-builds and council homes you make it an economical proposition to make affordable windmills, heat pumps, etc. in their hundreds of thousands.
Aha. So you are proposing the taxpayers to take the burden of subsidizing those that are decide to generate electricity in their backyard in order to cover the huge difference of costs. Brilliant.

If you don't like the grid you may try living one day without it. Or you may try to make a local grid in your neighbourhood and pray all day and night that nothing breaks, because you are obviously not an electrical engineer.

Part of the problem is that the only viable microgeneration I have seen so far is the combined boiler/electricity generator. As you know, supplies of natural gas are running low, so this is not a good long term solution either. Wind turbine efficiency is proportional to the radius, so small windmills generate very little electricity, as does solar. The question of council regulations about mounting noisy eyesores to your roof also spring to mind.

All of these things also require a reliable grid connection for when they have down time. As for cost, they are incredibly expensive at this stage, thousands of pounds, which households will be reluctant to fund.

There is certainly some scope for commercial and industrial generation, but for average households it doesn't make economic sense.

The answer to the question, "Are there particular considerations that should apply to nuclear?" is Yes.  Nuclear produces waste which must be managed by future generations.  We cannot ask those future generations whether they wish to do this.  If they had a voice they would, of course, say "No", as they derive no benefit from their forebears' profligacy.  We cannot even know whether future generations will be able to manage the waste.  We must not presume that a technologically competent society continues for a much longer timescale than civilised humanity has existed so far.

Other arguments about price, operating safety, capital diversion, security and sustainability of uranium supplies are secondary to this fundamentally moral question.

And when did you manage to ask the future generations about their opinion?

Personaly I hope that contemporary ecoutopists will not be judged too severely by the same future generations after we leave them struggle the energy shortages. I hope, but I don't really believe it.

And your point is?

Whether we can ask them or not, surely our future generations should not be pressed into service by the choices made by their forebears.

If we leave our children, grand children, and great grand children nothing more than an environment free of chemical and nuclear and genetic waste, them we, their forebears, have done well.

Sure, maybe we could have prevented climactic catastrophe had only we walked. But, we didn't. We drove our cars. We chose to fly. We couldn't control ourselves.

If we leave them the shit hole that's implied by your "ecoutopists" label, then no matter what, they're fucked and we've fucked them.

What, exactly, are you saying?  Are you saying that we should spare them the struggle of life under draconian energy conditions in exchange for?

If so then, what do propose we do to prevent future generations suffering from the choices we've made today? Choices we could change, for the better of all life, not just human.

So, when you wake up tomorrow and have your hot shower in your gas heated home just remember that some disgruntled "ecoutopists" were hoping to make the future for your sprogs way easier than you seem to be willing to.

Let's not fight over this guys! Throughout history we've left messes for future generations to "clean-up." It's unpleasant, but par for the course. Clearly radioactive waste is something else. It's funny, if the ancient Greeks had developed nuclear power we'd still be looking after the waste wouldn't we? Makes one think doesn't it?
It's funny, if the ancient Greeks had developed nuclear power we'd still be looking after the waste wouldn't we?

No more than we have to take care of the ruins they left us.

From Wikipedia:

The radioactivity of all nuclear waste diminishes with time. All radioisotopes contained in the waste have a half-life - the time it takes for any radionuclide to lose half of its radioactivity. Eventually all radioactive waste decays into non-radioactive elements; for example, after 40 years 99.9% of radiation in spent nuclear fuel disappears [1].

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_waste

After 2000 years the radiation of nuclear waste would be 0.000000000000000008% of the initial radiation. Million times lower than the natural radiation level. Or you want to shield our kids from the natural radiation too?

Which just goes to show that you should not accept everything you read on Wikepedia uncritically.
Nuclear waste consists of many different isotopes such as U238 with a half life of 4.5 billion years and several isotopes with very short half lives.  These are not the problem.  It's the isotopes with intermediate half lives such as the biologically active strontium 90 and caesium 137 with half lives of around 30 years that require future generations to ensure that our wastes are kept isolated for thousands of years.
It seems you are not aware what the term "half life" means. In 1000 years an isotop with half life of 30 years would represent   1/2^(1000/30) ~ 9.10^-11 or one ten billionth of its initial amount.

Considering that isotops like the one you mentioned are some 0.1% of the nuclear waste it would turn out that if you decide to eat (!) 1 gram of 1000 old waste you would receive some 10 million atoms of radioactive stroncium in your organism.

In comparison only the naturally occuring radioactive C-14 staying permanently in your organism is 1,505,000,000 million atoms and you don't seem to die from it, right? Do you have any idea how much radioactive materials you breath every day from emissions from coal power plants and from car exhaust? I guess you don't but if you make the research don't try not to breath - it can be dangerous.

OK, I figured out that to be factually correct I have to account for strontium-90 being 200 times more radioactive than C-14. This makes it that you already have 7,525,000 million atoms of strontium-90 equivelent in your body only from the C-14. The actual value of naturaly accuring radioactive isotops  in everyone of us would be much higher.
Reality rather than wishful thinking:
http://archive.greenpeace.org/mayak/
But if you don't want the Greenpeace view you could take it from the US Nuclear Regulatory Commission:
"Some of the radioactive elements in spent fuel have short half-lives (for example, iodine-131 has an 8-day half-life) and therefore their radioactivity decreases rapidly. However, many of the radioactive elements in spent fuel have long half-lives. For example, plutonium-239 has a half-life of 24,000 years, and plutonium-240 has a half-life of 6,800 years. Because it contains these long half-lived radioactive elements, spent fuel must be isolated and controlled for thousands of years."
http://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/nuregs/brochures/br0216/r2/index.html#how_hazardous_hl w
That's why more technologically "advanced" nations like Russia are separating long-lived transuranic elements and are reusing them as nuclear fuel.

Don't get me wrong - the nuclear waste problem is not to be underestimated. But it is largely technically solvable and in many countries is successfully solved. The reason it is not solved sufficiently in western countries is just one - NIMBYSM - and your attitude shows exactly that. For example there are billions accumulated for that storage in Yucca Mountain and still the problem is protracted because some people don't have other purpose in life than denying everything and everywhere.

"Reality" and "Greenpeace" are grossly incompatible words.

And digging out Russian stories dating from Stalin's time is a bright proof for that. Where are the same stories for USA, France, England, Germany? They also store nuclear waste, and much larger amounts BTW. Or you feel nostalgic for early Soviet's Russia? I don't.

So, where are the mutating children, where are the terrorists making dirty bombs and enriching plutonium in their basements? Where?  

You know what? I also want to live in a different world, but getting to that different world starts with knowing the todays world.

Pushing your daydream "solutions" will not help neither yours nor my children. Read some technical books about energy, finish some technical course and then you will have the moral position of giving advices to the people that keep you warm and fed. The same that will keep your kids warm and fed too.

The days of readily accessible, single source energy inputs of sufficient quantity for all our energy needs is coming to an end. It was once coal, then coal + nuclear + gas. All technologies require serious consideration and development. This includes and can start with conservation. It is not enough to just assume we can continue to grow energy supplies year on year to meet demand without thinking why demand has to grow year on year. Back to it again: education and a fashion for frugality rather than unthinking conspicuous consumption.
Nuclear, Clean coal, gas (for a while, though better conserved for fertilisers), microgeneration, PV , wind, tidal barrier,wave and hydro will all have to play a part.
Base load for an industrial society will require major power plants and this can only come from Nukes, Coal and Gas. Unless we wish for a major societal disconnect then the base load will come from Nukes and coal. But consumption must be the immediate and most easily targeted method of reducing load. That means thinking about energy and regarding waste and pointless use as an act of stupidity. Charity begins at home. So does conservation.
This is something that everyone can do with immediate effect.
The days of readily accessible, single source energy inputs of sufficient quantity for all our energy needs is coming to an end. It was once coal, then coal + nuclear + gas. All technologies require serious consideration and development. This includes and can start with conservation. It is not enough to just assume we can continue to grow energy supplies year on year to meet demand without thinking why demand has to grow year on year. Back to it again: education and a fashion for frugality rather than unthinking conspicuous consumption.
Nuclear, Clean coal, gas (for a while, though better conserved for fertilisers), microgeneration, PV , wind, tidal barrier,wave and hydro will all have to play a part.
Base load for an industrial society will require major power plants and this can only come from Nukes, Coal and Gas. Unless we wish for a major societal disconnect then the base load will come from Nukes and coal. But consumption must be the immediate and most easily targeted method of reducing load. That means thinking about energy and regarding waste and pointless use as an act of stupidity. Charity begins at home. So does conservation.
This is something that everyone can do with immediate effect.
Oh No!
This truly is the end of the world:
PEAK CHOCOLATE

From the Times: Saturday March 11th.

''...But now a shadow is looming over the worldwide chocolate industry -- the threat of a worldwide shortage of cocoa beans, caused by a sudden epidemic of chocomania in Asia.

With chocolate consumption increasing at a rate of 25 per cent a year in the Asia-Pacific region, and 30 per cent in China, chocolate makers fear that coco- bean growers will not be able to keep up with demand. The unstoppable growth of China has aroused fears of future conflicts over natural resources such as oil, gas and water. Now a new and unforeseen catastrophe presents itself: global chocolate wars...''

Hey man, you ruined all the optimism I have left... I can do without my car but without this... [sighing deeply]
Worse yet.
Ive heard rumours of PEAK VODKA and PEAK TEQUILLA
I can see a great danger of strong positive feedback between PEAK VODKA and PEAK (russian) OIL :)

Like I said it's time to head for the hills...

Dear Friends:
The Sustainable Development Commission has issued a report challenging the rush to new nuclear build: http://www.sd-commission.org.uk/pages/060306.html.  

"Energy gap" is the right way to frame the problem and it is a serious one for the UK, but it's by no means certain that nuclear makes sense from a pounds-and-pence point of view.

Neither the US nor the UK has in place a permanent storage answer for waste from current plants.  So, here's a compromise: build new nukes AFTER all the waste from current plants is safely in permanent storage.  Do we have a deal?